Viscerotropic Leishmaniasis in Iran: Current Insights and Future Directions: A Narrative Review
Abstract
Background: Viscerotropic leishmaniasis (VTL), a recently recognized variant of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), presents unique clinical challenges due to its nonspecific symptoms, primarily caused by Leishmania tropica. VTL is increasingly prevalent in cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) endemic regions, particularly in Iran. This study reviews the distribution and identification of VTL in human and animal hosts in Iran, examining host demographics, geographic location, causative Leishmania species, clinical manifestations, and genetic diversity to enhance understanding of leishmaniasis epidemiology.
Methods: A comprehensive database search identified 23 relevant studies utilizing PCR techniques for species identification.
Results: Findings indicate that VTL in Iran is predominantly caused by L. tropica, with occasional cases attributed to L. major. Interestingly, L. infantum, typically associated with VL, has also been implicated in CL across various regions, suggesting its potential role in dermotropic leishmaniasis (DL) in humans. Additionally, rare cases of L. tropica-induced VTL in dogs have been reported.
Conclusion: Addressing VTL requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates research, surveillance, and targeted interventions to improve diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Furthermore, developing rapid, cost-effective diagnostic tools to distinguish VTL from other infections and evaluating therapies for VTL caused by L. tropica and L. major are crucial steps in protecting vulnerable populations and reducing the disease burden.
1. Karamian M, Motazedian MH, Mehrabani D, Gholami K. Leishmania major infection in a patient with visceral leishmaniasis: treatment with amphotericin B. Parasitol Res. 2007;101(5):1431–1434.
2. Shafiei R, Mohebali M, Akhoundi B, et al. Emergence of co-infection of visceral leishmaniasis in HIV-positive patients in Northeast Iran: a preliminary study. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2014;12(2):173–178.
3. Hyams KC, Riddle J, Trump DH, Graham GT. Endemic infectious diseases and biological warfare during the Gulf War: a decade of analysis and final concerns. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;65:664–670.
4. Badirzadeh A, Mohebali M, Sabzevari S, Ghafoori M, Arzamani K, Seyyedin M, Hashemi SA. Case Report: First coinfection report of mixed Leishmania infantum/Leishmania major and human immunodeficiency virus–acquired immune deficiency syndrome: report of a case of disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iran. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2018;98(1):122–125.
5. Ghatee MA, Mirhendi H, Marashifard M, Kanannejad Z, Taylor WR, Sharifi I. Population structure of Leishmania tropica causing anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in southern Iran by PCR‐RFLP of kinetoplastid DNA. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:6049198.
6. Hatam GR, Hosseini SM, Ardehali S. Dermotropic isolates of Leishmania infantum in Iran. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997;91 (4):440.
7. Sarkari B, Bavarsad N, Ahmadpour N, Moshfe A, Hajjaran H. Molecular evaluation of a case of visceral leishmaniasis due to Leishmania tropica in southwestern Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2016;11(1):126–30.
8. Ghatee MA, Sharifi I, Haghdoost AA, Kanannejad Z, Taabody Z, Hatam G, Abdollahipanah A. Spatial correlations of population and ecological factors with distribution of visceral leishmaniasis cases in southwestern Iran. J Vector Borne Dis. 2013 ;50(3):179-87.
9. Shafiei R, Namdar Ahmadabad H, et al. Cytokine profile and nitric oxide levels in macrophages exposed to Leishmania infantum FML. Exp Parasitol. 2019; 203:1–7.
10. Namdar Ahmadabad H, Shafiei R, Hatam GR, Zolfaghari Emameh R, Aspatwar A. Cytokine profile and nitric oxide levels in peritoneal macrophages of BALB/c mice exposed to the fucose-mannose ligand of Leishmania infantum combined with glycyrrhizin. Parasit Vectors. 2020;13(1):363.
11. Weiss F, Vogenthaler N, Franco-Paredes C, Parker SRS. Leishmania tropica–induced cutaneous and presumptive concomitant viscerotropic Leishmaniasis with prolonged incubation. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(9):1023–6.
12. Choi CM, Lerner EA. Leishmaniasis as an emerging infection. In: Journal of Investigative Dermatology Symposium Proceedings. Elsevier; 2001. p. 175–82.
13. Ghatee MA, Nikaein K, Rajaie O, Taylor WR, Karamian M. A comparative study of the proximity to nomadic travel routes and environmental factors on the occurrence of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer–Ahmad province, southwestern Iran. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2022;69(4):e547-e553.
14. Ghatee MA, Fakhar M, Derakhshani‐Niya M, Behrouzi Z, Hosseini Teshnizi S. Geo‐climatic factors in a newly emerging focus of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis in rural areas of north‐eastern Iran. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2020;67(2):914-23.
15. Ghatee MA, Sharifi I, Mohammadi N, Moghaddam BE, Kohansal MH. Geographical and climatic risk factors of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the hyper-endemic focus of Bam County in southeast Iran. Front Public Health. 2023;11:1236552.
16. Mohebali M, Edrissian G, Akhindi B, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis in Iran: An update on epidemiological features from 2013-2022. Iran J Parasitol. 2023;18(3):279–93
17. Sarkari B, Asgari Q, Shafaf MR. Knowledge, attitude, and practices related to cutaneous leishmaniasis in an endemic focus of cutaneous leishmaniasis, Southern Iran. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(7):566–569
18. Shafiei R, Shoraka HR, Mahmoodi Manesh M, Ahmad Gholami. Community health of knowledge and attitude towards cutaneous leishmaniasis among rural residents in Esfarayen county, North Khorasan province of Iran. Clinical Epidemiology and Glob. 2025;33: 101973.
19. Barral A, Badaro R, Barral-Netto M, Grimaldi Jr G, Momem H, Carvalho EM. Isolation of Leishmania mexicana amazonensis from the bone marrow in a case of American visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1986;35(4):732–4.
20. Mebrahtu Y, Lawyer P, Githure J, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis unresponsive to pentostam caused by Leishmania tropica in Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1989;41(3):289–94.
21. Oren R, Schnur LF, Yehuda D Ben, Mayner V, Okon E, Rachmilewitz EA. Visceral leishmaniasis: a difficult diagnosis and unusual causative agent. J Infect Dis. 1991;164(4):746–9.
22. Magill AJ, Grogl M, Johnson SC GRJ. Visceral infection due to Leishmania tropica in a veteran of Operation Desert Storm who presented 2 years after leaving Saudi Arabia. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;19(4):805–806.
23. Sacks DL, Kenney RT, Neva FA, et al. Indian kala-azar caused by Leishmania tropica. Lancet. 1995;345(8955):959–61.
24. Guessous-Idrissi N, Berrag B, Riyad M, Sahibi H, Bichichi M, Rhalem A. Leishmania tropica: etiologic agent of a case of canine visceral leishmaniasis in northern Morocco. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997;57(2):172–3.
25. Alborzi A, Rasouli M SA. Leishmania tropica isolated patient with visceral leishmaniasis in southern Iran. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;74:306–307.
26. Geramizadeh B, Fakhar M, Motazedian MH. Visceral leishmaniasis with duodenal involvement: three immunocompetent cases from southern Iran. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2006;100(7):637–40.
27. Alborzi A, Pouladfar GR, Fakhar M, Motazedian MH, Hatam GR, Kadivar MR. Case report: isolation of Leishmania tropica from a patient with visceral leishmaniasis and disseminated cutaneous Leishmaniasis, Southern Iran. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008;79(3):435–7.
28. Habibzadeh F, Sajedianfard J, Yadollahie M. Isolated lingual leishmaniasis. J Postgrad Med. 2005;51(3):218–9.
29. Hosseininasab A, Sharifi I, Daei MH, Zarean M, Dadkhah M. Causes of pediatric visceral leishmaniasis in southeastern Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2014;9(4):584-7.
30. Jafari S, Hajiabdolbaghi M, Mohebali M, Hajjaran H, Hashemian H. Disseminated leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania tropica in HIV positive patients in the Islamic Republic of Iran. East Mediterr Health J. 2010;16(3):340–3.
31. Hajjaran H, Mohebali M, Mamishi S, et al. Molecular identification and polymorphism determination of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis agents isolated from human and animal hosts in Iran. Biomed Res Int. 2013; 2013: 789326.
32. Hashemi SA, Badirzadeh A, Sabzevari S, Nouri A, Seyyedin M. First case report of atypical disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis in an opium abuser in Iran. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2018;60:e5.
33. Shafiei R, Azimian A, Mohebali M, Badiei Z, Raeghi S, Firouzeh N. Are there atypical Leishmania species responsible for the Kala-Azar persistence in Northeast Iran? Acta Parasitol. 2025;70(2):77.
34. Barani S, Turki H, Shafiei R, Jafarzadeh F, Hosseinzadeh Maleki H, Raeghi S. Clinico-hematological findings of acute pediatric visceral leishmaniasis referred to the northeast of Iran during 2005-2015. Iran J Parasitol. 2020;15(2): 214-222.
35. Shafiei R, Kalantari M, Yousefi M, et al. Bionomics and Phylomolecular analysis of Leishmania species isolated from human lesions using ITS1 genes in north-east of Iran. J Parasit Dis. 2021; 45(3):754-761.
36. Hajjaran H, Mohebali M, Akhavan AA, Taheri A, Barikbin B, Soheila NS. Unusual presentation of disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania major: case reports of four Iranian patients. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2013;6(4):333–6.
37. Elfari M, Schnur LF, Strelkova MV, et al. Genetic and biological diversity among populations of Leishmania major from Central Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Microbes Infect. 2005; 7:93–103.
38. Hajjaran H, Mohebali M, Zarei Z, Edrissian GH. Leishmania tropica: another etiological agent of canine visceral leishmaniasis in Iran. Iran J Public Health, 2007; 36:85-88.
39. Mohebali M, Hajjaran H, Hamzavi Y, et al. Epidemiological aspects of canine visceral leishmaniasis in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Vet Parasitol. 2005; 129:243–251.
40. Soleimani A, Mohebali M, Gholizadeh S, Bozorgomid A, Shafiei R, Raeghi S. Molecular and serological evaluation of visceral leishmaniasis in domestic dogs and cats in Maragheh County, north-west of Iran, 2018-2021. Vet Med Sci. 2022;8(5): 1898–1903.
41. Pourahmad M, Hooshmand F, Rahiminejad M. Cutaneous leishmaniasis associated with visceral leishmaniasis in a case of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Int J Dermatol. 2009; 48: 59–61.
42. Badirzadeh A, Mohebali M, Ghasemian M, et al. Cutaneous and post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania infantum in endemic areas of visceral leishmaniasis, northwestern Iran 2002–2011: a case series. Pathog Glob Health. 2013;107(4):194–7.
43. Shirian S, Oryan A, Hatam GR, Daneshbod Y. Three Leishmania/L. species–L. infantum, L. major, L. tropica–as causative agents of mucosal leishmaniasis in Iran. Pathog Glob Health. 2013;107(5):267–72.
44. Molaei M, Minakari M, Pejhan S, Mashayekhi R, Fatthi ARM, Zali MR. Intestinal leishmaniasis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2011;13(5):348-51.
45. Mohebali M, Malmasi A, Hajjaran H, et al. Disseminated leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania tropica in a puppy from Karaj, Central Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2011;6(2):69-73.
46. Bamorovat M, Sharifi I, Dabiri S, et al. Leishmania tropica in stray dogs in southeast Iran. Iran J Public Health. 2015;44(10):1359–66.
47. Hajjaran H, Mohebali M, Teimouri A, et al. Identification and phylogenetic relationship of Iranian strains of various Leishmania species isolated from cutaneous and visceral cases of leishmaniasis based on N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase gene. Infect Genet Evol. 2014;26:203–12.
2. Shafiei R, Mohebali M, Akhoundi B, et al. Emergence of co-infection of visceral leishmaniasis in HIV-positive patients in Northeast Iran: a preliminary study. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2014;12(2):173–178.
3. Hyams KC, Riddle J, Trump DH, Graham GT. Endemic infectious diseases and biological warfare during the Gulf War: a decade of analysis and final concerns. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;65:664–670.
4. Badirzadeh A, Mohebali M, Sabzevari S, Ghafoori M, Arzamani K, Seyyedin M, Hashemi SA. Case Report: First coinfection report of mixed Leishmania infantum/Leishmania major and human immunodeficiency virus–acquired immune deficiency syndrome: report of a case of disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iran. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2018;98(1):122–125.
5. Ghatee MA, Mirhendi H, Marashifard M, Kanannejad Z, Taylor WR, Sharifi I. Population structure of Leishmania tropica causing anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in southern Iran by PCR‐RFLP of kinetoplastid DNA. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:6049198.
6. Hatam GR, Hosseini SM, Ardehali S. Dermotropic isolates of Leishmania infantum in Iran. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997;91 (4):440.
7. Sarkari B, Bavarsad N, Ahmadpour N, Moshfe A, Hajjaran H. Molecular evaluation of a case of visceral leishmaniasis due to Leishmania tropica in southwestern Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2016;11(1):126–30.
8. Ghatee MA, Sharifi I, Haghdoost AA, Kanannejad Z, Taabody Z, Hatam G, Abdollahipanah A. Spatial correlations of population and ecological factors with distribution of visceral leishmaniasis cases in southwestern Iran. J Vector Borne Dis. 2013 ;50(3):179-87.
9. Shafiei R, Namdar Ahmadabad H, et al. Cytokine profile and nitric oxide levels in macrophages exposed to Leishmania infantum FML. Exp Parasitol. 2019; 203:1–7.
10. Namdar Ahmadabad H, Shafiei R, Hatam GR, Zolfaghari Emameh R, Aspatwar A. Cytokine profile and nitric oxide levels in peritoneal macrophages of BALB/c mice exposed to the fucose-mannose ligand of Leishmania infantum combined with glycyrrhizin. Parasit Vectors. 2020;13(1):363.
11. Weiss F, Vogenthaler N, Franco-Paredes C, Parker SRS. Leishmania tropica–induced cutaneous and presumptive concomitant viscerotropic Leishmaniasis with prolonged incubation. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(9):1023–6.
12. Choi CM, Lerner EA. Leishmaniasis as an emerging infection. In: Journal of Investigative Dermatology Symposium Proceedings. Elsevier; 2001. p. 175–82.
13. Ghatee MA, Nikaein K, Rajaie O, Taylor WR, Karamian M. A comparative study of the proximity to nomadic travel routes and environmental factors on the occurrence of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer–Ahmad province, southwestern Iran. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2022;69(4):e547-e553.
14. Ghatee MA, Fakhar M, Derakhshani‐Niya M, Behrouzi Z, Hosseini Teshnizi S. Geo‐climatic factors in a newly emerging focus of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis in rural areas of north‐eastern Iran. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2020;67(2):914-23.
15. Ghatee MA, Sharifi I, Mohammadi N, Moghaddam BE, Kohansal MH. Geographical and climatic risk factors of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the hyper-endemic focus of Bam County in southeast Iran. Front Public Health. 2023;11:1236552.
16. Mohebali M, Edrissian G, Akhindi B, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis in Iran: An update on epidemiological features from 2013-2022. Iran J Parasitol. 2023;18(3):279–93
17. Sarkari B, Asgari Q, Shafaf MR. Knowledge, attitude, and practices related to cutaneous leishmaniasis in an endemic focus of cutaneous leishmaniasis, Southern Iran. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(7):566–569
18. Shafiei R, Shoraka HR, Mahmoodi Manesh M, Ahmad Gholami. Community health of knowledge and attitude towards cutaneous leishmaniasis among rural residents in Esfarayen county, North Khorasan province of Iran. Clinical Epidemiology and Glob. 2025;33: 101973.
19. Barral A, Badaro R, Barral-Netto M, Grimaldi Jr G, Momem H, Carvalho EM. Isolation of Leishmania mexicana amazonensis from the bone marrow in a case of American visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1986;35(4):732–4.
20. Mebrahtu Y, Lawyer P, Githure J, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis unresponsive to pentostam caused by Leishmania tropica in Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1989;41(3):289–94.
21. Oren R, Schnur LF, Yehuda D Ben, Mayner V, Okon E, Rachmilewitz EA. Visceral leishmaniasis: a difficult diagnosis and unusual causative agent. J Infect Dis. 1991;164(4):746–9.
22. Magill AJ, Grogl M, Johnson SC GRJ. Visceral infection due to Leishmania tropica in a veteran of Operation Desert Storm who presented 2 years after leaving Saudi Arabia. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;19(4):805–806.
23. Sacks DL, Kenney RT, Neva FA, et al. Indian kala-azar caused by Leishmania tropica. Lancet. 1995;345(8955):959–61.
24. Guessous-Idrissi N, Berrag B, Riyad M, Sahibi H, Bichichi M, Rhalem A. Leishmania tropica: etiologic agent of a case of canine visceral leishmaniasis in northern Morocco. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997;57(2):172–3.
25. Alborzi A, Rasouli M SA. Leishmania tropica isolated patient with visceral leishmaniasis in southern Iran. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;74:306–307.
26. Geramizadeh B, Fakhar M, Motazedian MH. Visceral leishmaniasis with duodenal involvement: three immunocompetent cases from southern Iran. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2006;100(7):637–40.
27. Alborzi A, Pouladfar GR, Fakhar M, Motazedian MH, Hatam GR, Kadivar MR. Case report: isolation of Leishmania tropica from a patient with visceral leishmaniasis and disseminated cutaneous Leishmaniasis, Southern Iran. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008;79(3):435–7.
28. Habibzadeh F, Sajedianfard J, Yadollahie M. Isolated lingual leishmaniasis. J Postgrad Med. 2005;51(3):218–9.
29. Hosseininasab A, Sharifi I, Daei MH, Zarean M, Dadkhah M. Causes of pediatric visceral leishmaniasis in southeastern Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2014;9(4):584-7.
30. Jafari S, Hajiabdolbaghi M, Mohebali M, Hajjaran H, Hashemian H. Disseminated leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania tropica in HIV positive patients in the Islamic Republic of Iran. East Mediterr Health J. 2010;16(3):340–3.
31. Hajjaran H, Mohebali M, Mamishi S, et al. Molecular identification and polymorphism determination of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis agents isolated from human and animal hosts in Iran. Biomed Res Int. 2013; 2013: 789326.
32. Hashemi SA, Badirzadeh A, Sabzevari S, Nouri A, Seyyedin M. First case report of atypical disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis in an opium abuser in Iran. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2018;60:e5.
33. Shafiei R, Azimian A, Mohebali M, Badiei Z, Raeghi S, Firouzeh N. Are there atypical Leishmania species responsible for the Kala-Azar persistence in Northeast Iran? Acta Parasitol. 2025;70(2):77.
34. Barani S, Turki H, Shafiei R, Jafarzadeh F, Hosseinzadeh Maleki H, Raeghi S. Clinico-hematological findings of acute pediatric visceral leishmaniasis referred to the northeast of Iran during 2005-2015. Iran J Parasitol. 2020;15(2): 214-222.
35. Shafiei R, Kalantari M, Yousefi M, et al. Bionomics and Phylomolecular analysis of Leishmania species isolated from human lesions using ITS1 genes in north-east of Iran. J Parasit Dis. 2021; 45(3):754-761.
36. Hajjaran H, Mohebali M, Akhavan AA, Taheri A, Barikbin B, Soheila NS. Unusual presentation of disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania major: case reports of four Iranian patients. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2013;6(4):333–6.
37. Elfari M, Schnur LF, Strelkova MV, et al. Genetic and biological diversity among populations of Leishmania major from Central Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Microbes Infect. 2005; 7:93–103.
38. Hajjaran H, Mohebali M, Zarei Z, Edrissian GH. Leishmania tropica: another etiological agent of canine visceral leishmaniasis in Iran. Iran J Public Health, 2007; 36:85-88.
39. Mohebali M, Hajjaran H, Hamzavi Y, et al. Epidemiological aspects of canine visceral leishmaniasis in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Vet Parasitol. 2005; 129:243–251.
40. Soleimani A, Mohebali M, Gholizadeh S, Bozorgomid A, Shafiei R, Raeghi S. Molecular and serological evaluation of visceral leishmaniasis in domestic dogs and cats in Maragheh County, north-west of Iran, 2018-2021. Vet Med Sci. 2022;8(5): 1898–1903.
41. Pourahmad M, Hooshmand F, Rahiminejad M. Cutaneous leishmaniasis associated with visceral leishmaniasis in a case of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Int J Dermatol. 2009; 48: 59–61.
42. Badirzadeh A, Mohebali M, Ghasemian M, et al. Cutaneous and post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania infantum in endemic areas of visceral leishmaniasis, northwestern Iran 2002–2011: a case series. Pathog Glob Health. 2013;107(4):194–7.
43. Shirian S, Oryan A, Hatam GR, Daneshbod Y. Three Leishmania/L. species–L. infantum, L. major, L. tropica–as causative agents of mucosal leishmaniasis in Iran. Pathog Glob Health. 2013;107(5):267–72.
44. Molaei M, Minakari M, Pejhan S, Mashayekhi R, Fatthi ARM, Zali MR. Intestinal leishmaniasis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2011;13(5):348-51.
45. Mohebali M, Malmasi A, Hajjaran H, et al. Disseminated leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania tropica in a puppy from Karaj, Central Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2011;6(2):69-73.
46. Bamorovat M, Sharifi I, Dabiri S, et al. Leishmania tropica in stray dogs in southeast Iran. Iran J Public Health. 2015;44(10):1359–66.
47. Hajjaran H, Mohebali M, Teimouri A, et al. Identification and phylogenetic relationship of Iranian strains of various Leishmania species isolated from cutaneous and visceral cases of leishmaniasis based on N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase gene. Infect Genet Evol. 2014;26:203–12.
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| Issue | Vol 21 No 1 (2026) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijpa.v21i1.21628 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Viscerotropic Leishmaniasis Iran Leishmania tropica Narrative review | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Shafiei R, Ghatee MA, Gholami A, Sarkari B. Viscerotropic Leishmaniasis in Iran: Current Insights and Future Directions: A Narrative Review. Iran J Parasitol. 2026;21(1):01-10.
