Occurrence of Vermamoeba vermiformis in Environment and Keratitis Samples in Iran as a Public Health Concern: A Systematic Review
-
Zahra Mirabedini
,
Niloofar Mansoori
,
Maryam Niyyati
,
Naveed Ahmed Khan
,
Mohammad Hamedanipour
,
Bahare Mirzaalizadeh
Abstract
Background: Vermamoeba vermiformis is one of the prevalent Free-living amoebae (FLA) in the environment. In recent years, studies regarding the distribution of V. vermiformis have increased, focusing on the importance of this FLA as a human pathogen but its pathogenic potential is still unclear. Moreover, the endosymbiosis relationship between V. vermiformis and microorganisms may lead to the development of multi-antibiotic drug resistance pathogens and may increase FLA virulence.
Methods: We aimed to perform a systematic review of the data on the occurrence of V. vermiformis in the environment and keratitis samples in Iran. Articles on the occurrence of V. vermiformis in environment and keratitis samples in Iran were systematically searched in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar between January 2000 and July 2023. The keywords were carefully selected and accurately used to search for all relevant research articles to the title of the article.
Results: Fourteen studies (n = 14) with a combined total of 436 environmental and clinical samples were included. The overall prevalence of V. vermiformis across all studies ranged from 2% to 50%, with the highest detection rates observed in drinking and surface waters.
Conclusion: Our findings suggest a wide distribution of V. vermiformis in water and different environmental sources in Iran. More comprehensive studies on the pathogenesis of this genus and the relationship between V. vermiformis and its endosymbiosis are research priorities.
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2. Milanez GD, Masangkay FR, Thomas RC, et al. Molecular identification of Vermamoeba vermiformis from freshwater fish in lake Taal, Philippines. Exp Parasitol. 2017;183:201-6.
3. Putaporntip C, Kuamsab N, Nuprasert W, et al. Analysis of Acanthamoeba genotypes from public freshwater sources in Thailand reveals a new genotype, T23 Acanthamoeba bangkokensis sp. nov. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):17290.
4. Mirjalali H, Niyyati M, Abedkhojasteh H, Babaei Z, Sharifdini M, Rezaeian M. Pathogenic assays of Acanthamoeba belonging to the T4 genotype. Iran J Parasitol. 2013;8(4):530-5.
5. Scheid PL, Lâm T-T, Sinsch U, Balczun C. Vermamoeba vermiformis as etiological agent of a painful ulcer close to the eye. Parasitol Res. 2019;118(6):1999-2004.
6. Siddiqui R, Makhlouf Z, Khan NA. The increasing importance of Vermamoeba vermiformis. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2021;68(5):e12857.
7. Fouque E, Héchard Y, Hartemann P, Humeau P, Trouilhé M-C. Sensitivity of Vermamoeba (Hartmannella) vermiformis cysts to conventional disinfectants and protease. J Water Health 2015;13(2):302-10.
8. Fouque E, Yefimova M, Trouilhé MC, et al. Morphological study of the encystment and excystment of Vermamoeba vermiformis revealed original traits. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2015;62(3):327-37.
9. Javanmard E, Niyyati M, Lorenzo-Morales J, Lasjerdi Z, Behniafar H, Mirjalali H. Molecular identification of waterborne free living amoebae (Acanthamoeba, Naegleria and Vermamoeba) isolated from municipal drinking water and environmental sources, Semnan province, north half of Iran. Exp Parasitol. 2017;183:240-4.
10. Lal S, Singhrao SK, Achilles-Day UE, Morton LG, Pearce M, Crean S. Risk assessment for the spread of Serratia marcescens within dental-unit waterline systems using Vermamoeba vermiformis. Curr Microbiol. 2015;71:434-42.
11. Niyyati M, Arab-Mazar Z, Lasjerdi Z, et al. Molecular characterization of Acanthamoeba strains isolated from the oral cavity of hemodialysis patients in Iran. Parasitol Res. 2017;116:2965-2969.
12. Pazoki H, Niyyati M, Javanmard E, Lasjerdi Z, Spotin A, Mirjalali H, Behravan MR. Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of free-living amoebae (Acanthamoeba, Naegleria, and Vermamoeba) in the farmland soils and recreational places in Iran. Acta Parasitol. 2020;65:36-43.
13. Feiz Haddad MH, Habibpour H, Mahmoudi MR. Isolation and molecular identification of free-living amoebae (Naegleria spp., Acanthamoeba spp. and Vermamoeba spp.) from mineral springs in Guilan Province, northern Iran. J Water Health. 2020;18(1):60-66.
14. Mirabedini Z, Niyyati M, Mohammad Rahimi H, et al. The presence of yeasts and bacteria in free-living amoebae isolated from COVID-19 patients: concern for secondary infections. Int J Environ Health Res. 2025;35(7):1846–1859.
15. Mirabedini Z, Khan NA, Niyyati M, Javanmard E, Hamedanipour M, Arab-Mazar Z. Can free living Acanthamoeba act as a Trojan Horse for SARS-CoV-2 on viral survival and transmission in the environment? A narrative review. Iran J Parasitol. 2022;17(2):138-44.
16. Mirabedini Z, Niyyati M, Zanjirani Farahani L, Arab Mazar Z, Fatemi M, Hamedanipour M. Phylogenetic analysis of potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae (Acanthamoeba and Naegleria americana) isolated from the oral cavity of child labour: a public health concern. Ethiop J Health Sci. 2024;34(2).
17. Hajialilo E, Niyyati M, Solaymani M, Rezaeian M. Pathogenic free-living amoebae isolated from contact lenses of keratitis patients. Iran J parasitol. 2015;10(4):541-6.
18. Chelkha N, Hasni I, Louazani AC, Levasseur A, La Scola B, Colson P. Vermamoeba vermiformis CDC-19 draft genome sequence reveals considerable gene trafficking including with candidate phyla radiation and giant viruses. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):5928.
19. Niyyati M, Naghahi A, Behniafar H, Lasjerdi Z. Occurrence of free-living amoebae in nasal swaps of patients of intensive care unit (ICU) and critical care unit (CCU) and their surrounding environments. Iran J Public Health. 2018;47(6):908-913.
20. Lasjerdi Z, Niyyati M, Lorenzo-Morales J, Haghighi A, Taghipour N. Ophthalmology hospital wards contamination to pathogenic free living Amoebae in Iran. Acta Parasitol. 2015;60(3):417-22.
21. Reyes-Batlle M, Niyyati M, Martín-Navarro CM, et al. Unusual Vermamoeba vermiformis Strain Isolated from Snow in Mount Teide, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain. Novelty in Biomedicine. 2015; 3(4):189-192.
22. Reyes-Batlle M, Wagner C, Zamora-Herrera J, Vargas-Mesa A, Sifaoui I, González AC, et al. Isolation of thermotolerant Vermamoeba vermiformis strains from water sources in Lanzarote Island, Canary Islands, Spain. Acta Parasitol. 2016;61(3):650-3.
23. Chavatte N, Lambrecht E, Van Damme I, Sabbe K, Houf K. Free-living protozoa in the gastrointestinal tract and feces of pigs: Exploration of an unknown world and towards a protocol for the recovery of free-living protozoa. Vet Parasitol. 2016;225:91-8.
24. Norouzi M, Saberi R, Niyyati M, et al. Molecular identification of pathogenic free-living amoeba from household biofilm samples in Iran: a risk factor for Acanthamoeba keratitis. Microorganisms. 2021;9(10):2098.
25. Balczun C, Scheid PL, Sinsch U, Lâm T-T. Vermamoeba vermiformis as etiological agent of a painful ulcer close to the eye. Parasitol Res. 2019; 118(6):1999-2004.
26. Pagnier I, Valles C, Raoult D, La Scola B. Isolation of Vermamoeba vermiformis and associated bacteria in hospital water. Micro Pathog. 2015;80:14-20.
27. Cateau E, Maisonneuve E, Peguilhan S, Quellard N, Hechard Y, Rodier M-H. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Vermamoeba vermiformis relationships: bacterial multiplication and protection in amoebal-derived structures. Res Microbiol. 2014;165(10):847-51.
28. Geballa-Koukoulas K, La Scola B, Blanc G, Andreani J. Diversity of giant viruses infecting vermamoeba vermiformis. Front Microbiol. 2022;13:808499.
29. Maisonneuve E, Cateau E, Kaaki S, Rodier MH. Vermamoeba vermiformis-Aspergillus fumigatus relationships and comparison with other phagocytic cells. Parasitol Res. 2016;115(11):4097-4105.
30. Khatoonaki H, Solhjoo K, Rezanezhad H, Armand B, Abdoli A, Taghipour A. Isolation and identification of potentially pathogenic free-living amoeba in dental-unit water samples. J Water Health. 2022;20(7):1126-36.
31. Javanmard E, Niyyati M, Taghipour A, Fatemi M, Mirjalali H, Karanis P. Isolation and identification of potentially pathogenic free-living amoeba in drinking, surface, and stagnant water sources from Alborz Province, Iran. J Water Health. 2022;20(4):620-629.
32. Tanzifi A, Moghaddam Y, Dodangeh S, et al. Detection and molecular characterization of potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae from recreational and public soils in Mazandaran, Northern Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2021;16(2):295-304.
33. Biglarnia F, Solhjoo K, Rezanezhad H, Taghipour A, Armand B. Isolation and identification of potentially pathogenic free-living amoeba in dialysis fluid samples of hydraulic systems in hemodialysis units. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2022;116(5):454-61.
34. Latifi A, Salami M, Kazemirad E, Soleimani M. Isolation and identification of free-living amoeba from the hot springs and beaches of the Caspian Sea. Parasite Epidemiol Control. 2020;10:e00151.
35. Armand B, Motazedian M, Asgari Q. Isolation and identification of pathogenic free-living amoeba from surface and tap water of Shiraz City using morphological and molecular methods. Parasitol Res. 2016;115:63-8.
36. Niyyati M, Lasgerdi Z, Lorenzo-Morales J. Detection and molecular characterization of potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae from water sources in Kish Island, Southern Iran. Microbiol Insights. 2015; 8(Suppl 1):1-6.
37. Niyyati M, Saberi R, Lorenzo-Morales J, Salehi R. High occurrence of potentially-pathogenic free-living amoebae in tap water and recreational water sources in South-West Iran. Trop Biomed. 2016;33(1):95-101.
38. Marinho BTS, Santos DLd, Santos DLd, Rott MB. First report of free-living amoebae in watercourses in southern Brazil: molecular diagnosis and phylogenetic analysis of Vermamoeba vermiformis, Naegleria gruberi, and Acanthamoeba spp. J Water Health. 2023;21(7):972-80.
39. Cateau E, Delafont V, Hechard Y, Rodier M. Free-living amoebae: what part do they play in healthcare-associated infections? J Hosp Infect. 2014;87(3):131-40.
40. Masangkay F, Milanez G, Karanis P, Nissapatorn V. Vermamoeba vermiformis—global trend and future perspective. Arch Environ Occup Health. 2018:1-11.
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| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 21 No 2 (2026) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| Keywords | ||
| Free-living amoebae Vermamoeba vermiformis Keratitis Environment Iran | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Mirabedini Z, Mansoori N, Niyyati M, Khan NA, Hamedanipour M, Mirzaalizadeh B. Occurrence of Vermamoeba vermiformis in Environment and Keratitis Samples in Iran as a Public Health Concern: A Systematic Review. Iran J Parasitol. 2026;21(2):134-146.
