The Role of Some Free-Ranging Animals in the Transmission of Multi-Host Species of Cryptosporidium Spp.
,
Abstract
Background: We aimed to characterize Cryptosporidium spp. in rats, cats, pigeons, and crows.
Methods: Fifty-five animal origin Cryptosporidium spp. genome were identified, genotyped and confirmed by nested PCR and of RFLP-PCR analysis as well as sequenced based on 18s rRNA and gp60 genes in Tehran (2012-2019). Finally, the phylogenetic analysis was performed by MEGA software (version 7).
Results: By the molecular method, Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in 24 (15.2%), 15 (15%), 2 (2%) and 13 (13%) cases of wild rats, cat, pigeon, and crow, respectively. Among the identified species by the RFLP pattern, most isolates were identified as C. parvum (24/157) 17.8% in rats, (15/100) 15% in cats, (13/100) 13%in crew and (2/100) 2% in pigeons; and the rest of the cases were C. muris and C. felis. The results of sequencing did not prove the existence of C. parvum, C. felis, C. muris, and rat genotype. Subtyping of C. parvum was indicated that the dominant subtype family belongs to the IId family and the subtype A20G1 was the most common subtype detected in all hosts while A19G1 was detected in one isolate of cat and pigeon.
Conclusion: Free-ranging animals are infected by species/subtype of Cryptosporidium, which can infect humans. This shows by itself the hygienic importance of the free-ranging animals in urban ecosystems. In the transmission of human cryptosporidiosis, the multi-host Cryptosporidium species such as C. parvum, C. felis, and C. muris can be transferred potentially from these animals to humans.
1. Checkley W, White Jr AC, Jaganath D, et al. A review of the global burden, novel diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccine targets for Cryptosporidium. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15(1):85-94.
2. Vinayak S, Pawlowic MC, Sateriale A, et al. Genetic modification of the diarrheal pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum. Nature. 2015;523(7561):477-480.
3. Taghipour A, Olfatifar M, Foroutan M, Bahadory S, Malih N, Norouzi M. Global prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in rodents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev Vet Med. 2020; 182:105119.
4. Ryan U, Fayer R, Xiao L. Cryptosporidium species in humans and animals: Current understanding and research needs. Parasitology. 2014;141(13):1667-1685.
5. Taghipour A, Olfatifar M, Bahadory S, et al . The global prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in dogs: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vet Parasitol. 2020; 281:109093.
6. Minas K, McEwan NR, Newbold CJ, Scott KP. Optimization of a high-throughput CTAB-based protocol for the extraction of QPCR-grade DNA from rumen fluid, plant and bacterial pure cultures. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2011;325(2):162-169.
7. Silva SO, Richtzenhain LJ, Barros IN, et al. A new set of primers directed to 18s RRNA gene for molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. And their performance in the detection and differentiation of oocysts shed by synanthropic rodents. Exp Parasitol. 2013;135(3):551-557.
8. Iqbal A, Lim YA, Surin J, Sim BL. High diversity of Cryptosporidium subgenotypes identified in Malaysian HIV/AIDS individuals targeting gp60 gene. PLoS One. 2012;7(2):e31139.
9. Karanis P. Cryptosporidium: Waterborne and foodborne transmission and worldwide outbreaks. Euro-Mediterranean Conference for Environmental Integration. 2017:41-44
10. Foo C, Farrell J, Boxell A, Robertson I, Ryan UM. Novel Cryptosporidium genotype in wild Australian mice (Mus domesticus). Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007;73(23):7693-7696.
11. Bahrami F, Sadraei J, Frozandeh M. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. In wild rats of Tehran, Iran using 18s rRNA gene and PCR_RFLP method. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology. 2012; 5(3):486-90.
12. Mahmoudi M, Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad E, Kazemi B, et al. Cryptosporidium genotypes and subtypes distribution in river water in Iran. J Water Health. 2015; 13(2):600-606.
13. Lv C, Zhang L, Wang R,et al. Cryptosporidium spp. In wild, laboratory, and pet rodents in China: Prevalence and molecular characterization. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2009; 75(24):7692-7699.
14. Paparini A, Jackson B, Ward S, Young S, Ryan UM. Multiple Cryptosporidium genotypes detected in wild black rats (Rattus rattus) from northern Australia. Exp Parasitol. 2012; 131(4):404-412.
15. Zhao Z, Wang R, Zhao W, et al. Genotyping and subtyping of Giardia and Cryptosporidium isolates from commensal rodents in china. Parasitology. 2015; 142(6):800-806.
16. Bradley CA, Altizer S. Urbanization and the ecology of wildlife diseases. Trends Ecol Evol. 2007;22(2):95-102.
17. da Silveira-Neto L, Inácio S, Oliveira L, Bresciani K. la cryptosporidiosis es una enfermedad subestimada en los gatos? Arch Med Vet. 2015;47:1-6.
18. Kváč M, Hofmannová L, Ortega Y, et al. Stray cats are more frequently infected with zoonotic protists than pet cats. Folia Parasitol (Praha). 2017; 64:034.
19. Lucio-Forster A, Griffiths JK, Cama VA, Xiao L, Bowman DD. Minimal zoonotic risk of cryptosporidiosis from pet dogs and cats. Trends Parasitol. 2010; 26(4):174-179.
20. Sotiriadou I, Pantchev N, Gassmann D, Karanis P. Molecular identification of Giardia and Cryptosporidium from dogs and cats. Parasite. 2013; 20:8.
21. Santín M, Trout JM, Vecino JAC, Dubey J, Fayer R. Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in cats from Bogota (Colombia) and genotyping of isolates. Vet Parasitol. 2006; 141(3-4):334-339.
22. FitzGerald L, Bennett M, Ng J, et al. Morphological and molecular characterisation of a mixed Cryptosporidium muris/Cryptosporidium felis infection in a cat. Vet Parasitol. 2011;175(1-2):160-164.
23. Yang R, Ying JLJ, Monis P, Ryan U. Molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in cats (felis catus) in western Australia. Exp Parasitol. 2015; 155:13-18.
24. Koompapong K, Mori H, Thammasont-hijarern N, et al. Molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. In seagulls, pigeons, dogs, and cats in Thailand. Parasite. 2014;21:52.
25. Li W, Li Y, Song M, et al. Prevalence and genetic characteristics of Cryptosporidium, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis in cats and dogs in Heilongjiang province, china. Vet Parasitol. 2015;208(3-4):125-134.
26. Ehsan M, Akter M, Ahammed M, Ali M, Ahmed M. Prevalence and clinical importance of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in human and animals. Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 2016;14:109-122.
27. Pavlasek I, Ryan U. The first finding of a natural infection of Cryptosporidium muris in a cat. Vet Parasitol. 2007;144(3-4):349-352.
28. Ayinmode A, Obebe O, Falohun O. Molecular detection of Cryptosporidium species in street-sampled dog feces in Ibadan, Nigeria. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2018; 14:54-58.
29. Bowman DD, Lucio-Forster A. Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in dogs and cats: Veterinary and public health importance. Exp Parasitol. 2010;124(1):121-127.
30. Katsumata T, Hosea D, Ranuh IG, Uga S, Yanagi T, Kohno S. Possible Cryptosporidium muris infection in humans. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000;62(1):70-72.
31. Graczyk TK, Majewska AC, Schwab KJ. The role of birds in dissemination of human waterborne enteropathogens. Trends Parasitol. 2008;24:55-59.
32. Morgan UM, Monis PT, Xiao L,et al. Molecular and phylogenetic characterization of Cryptosporidium from birds. Int J Parasitol. 2001;31(3):289-296.
33. Cooper J. A veterinary approach to pigeons. J Small Anim Pract. 1984;25:505-516.
34. Wildi K, Haaf P, Reichlin T, et al. Uric acid for diagnosis and risk stratification in suspected myocardial infarction. Eur J Clin Invest. 2013;43(2):174-182.
35. Badparva E, Ezatpour B, Azami M, Badparva M. First report of birds infection by intestinal parasites in Khorramabad, west Iran. J Parasit Dis. 2015;39(4):720-724.
36. Oliveira BCM, Ferrari ED, da Cruz Panegossi MF, et al. First description of Cryptosporidium parvum in carrier pigeons (Columba livia). Vet Parasitol. 2017; 243:148-150.
37. Heuvelink A, Zwartkruis J, Van Heerwaarden C, Arends B, Stortelder V, De Boer E. Pathogenic bacteria and parasites in wildlife and surface water. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 2008;133(8):330-335.
38. Fayer R, Xiao L. Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis. CRC press; 2007.
39. Zahedi A, Phasey J, Boland T, Ryan U. First report of Cryptosporidium species in farmed and wild buffalo from the northern territory, Australia. Parasitol Res. 2016;115(3):1349-1353.
40. Zahedi A, Paparini A, Jian F, Robertson I, Ryan U. Public health significance of zoonotic Cryptosporidium species in wildlife: Critical insights into better drinking water management. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl. 2016;5:88-109.
41. Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad E, Haghighi A, Taghipour N, et al. Subtype analysis of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis isolates from humans and cattle in Iran. Vet Parasitol. 2011;179(1-3):250-252.
42. Taghipour N, Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad E, Haghighi A, et al. Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in Iranian children, Tehran, Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2011;6(4):41-45.
43. Sharbatkhori M, Mojarad EN, Taghipour N, Pagheh AS, Mesgarian F. Prevalence and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. In diarrheic children from Gonbad Kavoos city, Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2015; 10(3):441-7.
44. Alyousefi N, Mahdy M, Lim YAL, Xiao L, Mahmud R. First molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in Yemen. Parasitology. 2013; 140(6):729-734.
45. Silverlås C, Bosaeus-Reineck H, Näslund K, Björkman C. Is there a need for improved Cryptosporidium diagnostics in Swedish calves? Int J Parasitol. 2013;43(2):155-161.
46. Sun H, Zhuo X, Zhao X, et al. The heat shock protein 90 of Toxoplasma gondii is essential for invasion of host cells and tachyzoite growth. Parasite. 2017;24:22.
47. Wang R, Wang H, Sun Y, et al. Characteristics of Cryptosporidium transmission in preweaned dairy cattle in Henan, China. J Clin Microbiol. 2011; 49(3):1077-1082.
48. Plutzer J, Karanis P. Genotype and subtype analyses of Cryptosporidium isolates from cattle in Hungary. Vet Parasitol. 2007; 146(3-4):357-362.
49. Maizels RM. Toxocara canis: Molecular basis of immune recognition and evasion. Vet Parasitol. 2013;193(4):365-374.
50. Quílez J, Torres E, Chalmers RM, Hadfield SJ, Del Cacho E, Sánchez-Acedo C. Cryptosporidium genotypes and subtypes in lambs and goat kids in Spain. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008;74(19):6026-6031.
51. Jian F, Liu A, Wang R, et al. Common occurrence of Cryptosporidium hominis in horses and donkeys. Infect Genet Evol. 2016; 43:261-266.
52. Sangster L, Blake DP, Robinson G, et al. Detection and molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium parvum in British European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus). Vet Parasitol. 2016; 217:39-44.
53. de Lucio A, Merino FJ, Martínez-Ruiz R, Bailo B, Aguilera M, Fuentes I, Carmena D. Molecular genotyping and sub-genotyping of Cryptosporidium spp. Isolates from symptomatic individuals attending two major public hospitals in Madrid, Spain. Infect Genet Evol. 2016;37:49-56.
54. Alves M, Xiao L, Antunes F, Matos O. Distribution of Cryptosporidium subtypes in humans and domestic and wild ruminants in Portugal. Parasitol Res. 2006;99(3):287-292.
55. Coyle CM, Mahanty S, Zunt JR, et al. Neurocysticercosis: Neglected but not forgotten. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6(5):e1500.
56. Xiao L. Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis: An update. Exp Parasitol. 2010;124(1):80-89.
2. Vinayak S, Pawlowic MC, Sateriale A, et al. Genetic modification of the diarrheal pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum. Nature. 2015;523(7561):477-480.
3. Taghipour A, Olfatifar M, Foroutan M, Bahadory S, Malih N, Norouzi M. Global prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in rodents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev Vet Med. 2020; 182:105119.
4. Ryan U, Fayer R, Xiao L. Cryptosporidium species in humans and animals: Current understanding and research needs. Parasitology. 2014;141(13):1667-1685.
5. Taghipour A, Olfatifar M, Bahadory S, et al . The global prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in dogs: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vet Parasitol. 2020; 281:109093.
6. Minas K, McEwan NR, Newbold CJ, Scott KP. Optimization of a high-throughput CTAB-based protocol for the extraction of QPCR-grade DNA from rumen fluid, plant and bacterial pure cultures. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2011;325(2):162-169.
7. Silva SO, Richtzenhain LJ, Barros IN, et al. A new set of primers directed to 18s RRNA gene for molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. And their performance in the detection and differentiation of oocysts shed by synanthropic rodents. Exp Parasitol. 2013;135(3):551-557.
8. Iqbal A, Lim YA, Surin J, Sim BL. High diversity of Cryptosporidium subgenotypes identified in Malaysian HIV/AIDS individuals targeting gp60 gene. PLoS One. 2012;7(2):e31139.
9. Karanis P. Cryptosporidium: Waterborne and foodborne transmission and worldwide outbreaks. Euro-Mediterranean Conference for Environmental Integration. 2017:41-44
10. Foo C, Farrell J, Boxell A, Robertson I, Ryan UM. Novel Cryptosporidium genotype in wild Australian mice (Mus domesticus). Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007;73(23):7693-7696.
11. Bahrami F, Sadraei J, Frozandeh M. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. In wild rats of Tehran, Iran using 18s rRNA gene and PCR_RFLP method. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology. 2012; 5(3):486-90.
12. Mahmoudi M, Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad E, Kazemi B, et al. Cryptosporidium genotypes and subtypes distribution in river water in Iran. J Water Health. 2015; 13(2):600-606.
13. Lv C, Zhang L, Wang R,et al. Cryptosporidium spp. In wild, laboratory, and pet rodents in China: Prevalence and molecular characterization. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2009; 75(24):7692-7699.
14. Paparini A, Jackson B, Ward S, Young S, Ryan UM. Multiple Cryptosporidium genotypes detected in wild black rats (Rattus rattus) from northern Australia. Exp Parasitol. 2012; 131(4):404-412.
15. Zhao Z, Wang R, Zhao W, et al. Genotyping and subtyping of Giardia and Cryptosporidium isolates from commensal rodents in china. Parasitology. 2015; 142(6):800-806.
16. Bradley CA, Altizer S. Urbanization and the ecology of wildlife diseases. Trends Ecol Evol. 2007;22(2):95-102.
17. da Silveira-Neto L, Inácio S, Oliveira L, Bresciani K. la cryptosporidiosis es una enfermedad subestimada en los gatos? Arch Med Vet. 2015;47:1-6.
18. Kváč M, Hofmannová L, Ortega Y, et al. Stray cats are more frequently infected with zoonotic protists than pet cats. Folia Parasitol (Praha). 2017; 64:034.
19. Lucio-Forster A, Griffiths JK, Cama VA, Xiao L, Bowman DD. Minimal zoonotic risk of cryptosporidiosis from pet dogs and cats. Trends Parasitol. 2010; 26(4):174-179.
20. Sotiriadou I, Pantchev N, Gassmann D, Karanis P. Molecular identification of Giardia and Cryptosporidium from dogs and cats. Parasite. 2013; 20:8.
21. Santín M, Trout JM, Vecino JAC, Dubey J, Fayer R. Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in cats from Bogota (Colombia) and genotyping of isolates. Vet Parasitol. 2006; 141(3-4):334-339.
22. FitzGerald L, Bennett M, Ng J, et al. Morphological and molecular characterisation of a mixed Cryptosporidium muris/Cryptosporidium felis infection in a cat. Vet Parasitol. 2011;175(1-2):160-164.
23. Yang R, Ying JLJ, Monis P, Ryan U. Molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in cats (felis catus) in western Australia. Exp Parasitol. 2015; 155:13-18.
24. Koompapong K, Mori H, Thammasont-hijarern N, et al. Molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. In seagulls, pigeons, dogs, and cats in Thailand. Parasite. 2014;21:52.
25. Li W, Li Y, Song M, et al. Prevalence and genetic characteristics of Cryptosporidium, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis in cats and dogs in Heilongjiang province, china. Vet Parasitol. 2015;208(3-4):125-134.
26. Ehsan M, Akter M, Ahammed M, Ali M, Ahmed M. Prevalence and clinical importance of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in human and animals. Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 2016;14:109-122.
27. Pavlasek I, Ryan U. The first finding of a natural infection of Cryptosporidium muris in a cat. Vet Parasitol. 2007;144(3-4):349-352.
28. Ayinmode A, Obebe O, Falohun O. Molecular detection of Cryptosporidium species in street-sampled dog feces in Ibadan, Nigeria. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2018; 14:54-58.
29. Bowman DD, Lucio-Forster A. Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in dogs and cats: Veterinary and public health importance. Exp Parasitol. 2010;124(1):121-127.
30. Katsumata T, Hosea D, Ranuh IG, Uga S, Yanagi T, Kohno S. Possible Cryptosporidium muris infection in humans. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000;62(1):70-72.
31. Graczyk TK, Majewska AC, Schwab KJ. The role of birds in dissemination of human waterborne enteropathogens. Trends Parasitol. 2008;24:55-59.
32. Morgan UM, Monis PT, Xiao L,et al. Molecular and phylogenetic characterization of Cryptosporidium from birds. Int J Parasitol. 2001;31(3):289-296.
33. Cooper J. A veterinary approach to pigeons. J Small Anim Pract. 1984;25:505-516.
34. Wildi K, Haaf P, Reichlin T, et al. Uric acid for diagnosis and risk stratification in suspected myocardial infarction. Eur J Clin Invest. 2013;43(2):174-182.
35. Badparva E, Ezatpour B, Azami M, Badparva M. First report of birds infection by intestinal parasites in Khorramabad, west Iran. J Parasit Dis. 2015;39(4):720-724.
36. Oliveira BCM, Ferrari ED, da Cruz Panegossi MF, et al. First description of Cryptosporidium parvum in carrier pigeons (Columba livia). Vet Parasitol. 2017; 243:148-150.
37. Heuvelink A, Zwartkruis J, Van Heerwaarden C, Arends B, Stortelder V, De Boer E. Pathogenic bacteria and parasites in wildlife and surface water. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 2008;133(8):330-335.
38. Fayer R, Xiao L. Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis. CRC press; 2007.
39. Zahedi A, Phasey J, Boland T, Ryan U. First report of Cryptosporidium species in farmed and wild buffalo from the northern territory, Australia. Parasitol Res. 2016;115(3):1349-1353.
40. Zahedi A, Paparini A, Jian F, Robertson I, Ryan U. Public health significance of zoonotic Cryptosporidium species in wildlife: Critical insights into better drinking water management. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl. 2016;5:88-109.
41. Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad E, Haghighi A, Taghipour N, et al. Subtype analysis of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis isolates from humans and cattle in Iran. Vet Parasitol. 2011;179(1-3):250-252.
42. Taghipour N, Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad E, Haghighi A, et al. Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in Iranian children, Tehran, Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2011;6(4):41-45.
43. Sharbatkhori M, Mojarad EN, Taghipour N, Pagheh AS, Mesgarian F. Prevalence and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. In diarrheic children from Gonbad Kavoos city, Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2015; 10(3):441-7.
44. Alyousefi N, Mahdy M, Lim YAL, Xiao L, Mahmud R. First molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in Yemen. Parasitology. 2013; 140(6):729-734.
45. Silverlås C, Bosaeus-Reineck H, Näslund K, Björkman C. Is there a need for improved Cryptosporidium diagnostics in Swedish calves? Int J Parasitol. 2013;43(2):155-161.
46. Sun H, Zhuo X, Zhao X, et al. The heat shock protein 90 of Toxoplasma gondii is essential for invasion of host cells and tachyzoite growth. Parasite. 2017;24:22.
47. Wang R, Wang H, Sun Y, et al. Characteristics of Cryptosporidium transmission in preweaned dairy cattle in Henan, China. J Clin Microbiol. 2011; 49(3):1077-1082.
48. Plutzer J, Karanis P. Genotype and subtype analyses of Cryptosporidium isolates from cattle in Hungary. Vet Parasitol. 2007; 146(3-4):357-362.
49. Maizels RM. Toxocara canis: Molecular basis of immune recognition and evasion. Vet Parasitol. 2013;193(4):365-374.
50. Quílez J, Torres E, Chalmers RM, Hadfield SJ, Del Cacho E, Sánchez-Acedo C. Cryptosporidium genotypes and subtypes in lambs and goat kids in Spain. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008;74(19):6026-6031.
51. Jian F, Liu A, Wang R, et al. Common occurrence of Cryptosporidium hominis in horses and donkeys. Infect Genet Evol. 2016; 43:261-266.
52. Sangster L, Blake DP, Robinson G, et al. Detection and molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium parvum in British European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus). Vet Parasitol. 2016; 217:39-44.
53. de Lucio A, Merino FJ, Martínez-Ruiz R, Bailo B, Aguilera M, Fuentes I, Carmena D. Molecular genotyping and sub-genotyping of Cryptosporidium spp. Isolates from symptomatic individuals attending two major public hospitals in Madrid, Spain. Infect Genet Evol. 2016;37:49-56.
54. Alves M, Xiao L, Antunes F, Matos O. Distribution of Cryptosporidium subtypes in humans and domestic and wild ruminants in Portugal. Parasitol Res. 2006;99(3):287-292.
55. Coyle CM, Mahanty S, Zunt JR, et al. Neurocysticercosis: Neglected but not forgotten. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6(5):e1500.
56. Xiao L. Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis: An update. Exp Parasitol. 2010;124(1):80-89.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 18 No 3 (2023) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijpa.v18i3.13754 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Cryptosporidium Mutli-host species Free-ranging Transmission | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Mirzaghavami M, Sadraei J, Pirestani M, Bahadory S. The Role of Some Free-Ranging Animals in the Transmission of Multi-Host Species of Cryptosporidium Spp. Iran J Parasitol. 2023;18(3):313-323.
