Background: This review investigated the impact of skin and gut microbiomes on the development of leishmaniasis. Dysbiosis in these microbiomes is associated with various skin disorders through mechanisms related to immune modulation and inflammation. Leishmaniasis primarily presents as cutaneous wounds. The immune response of the host to Leishmania plays a crucial role in determining the disease's severity and treatment effectiveness. Gaining insight into these microbiome-immune dynamics is essential for improving the prevention and management of leishmaniasis.
Methods: A thorough analysis of the most recent research was done, emphasizing the functions of chemokines and cytokines in Leishmania infection. Synthesizing key findings from research indexed by PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, EMBASE, and Magiran up to June 2024 provided an extensive understanding of immunological mechanisms. Eventually, 19 manuscripts were included in this review and thoroughly investigated and reported.
Results: The delicate balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory signals in the immune response to Leishmania infection largely depends on the commensal microbial populations.
Conclusion: Future research should concentrate on modifying these reactions to improve treatment outcomes for leishmaniasis.

Background: Toxoplasmosis is a significant global health concern. Definitive diagnosis of toxoplasmosis is a serious challenge due to false positive serological results. This study focuses on optimization and standardization of an in-house IgG avidity ELISA for Toxoplasma gondii using freshly prepared Toxoplasma lysate antigen (TLA).
Methods: Samples were collected during routine pregnancy screening. Following tachyzoite purification, TLA concentration was determined by the Bradford assay at 20 μg/mL. The indirect ELISA assay was then performed with a urea treatment step (6 M). Using 75 serum samples classified as acute or chronic toxoplasmosis, the IgG avidity test was performed by ELISA in two rows of microplates with 6 M urea and PBS, and then the avidity index was calculated.
Results: After calculating the cutoff values, the sensitivity and specificity of the in-house Toxoplasma IgG avidity kit were 92% (95% CI: 74–99%) and 100% (95% CI: 86–100%), respectively, with an area under the ROC curve (AUC) of 0.977 (95% CI: 0.951–1.000).
Conclusion: The results of the IgG avidity test designed in this study along with standardizing the method and interpreting the results showed the promising performance of this assay to differentiate the acute from the chronic stages of toxoplasmosis.

Background: Vaccination represents a promising strategy for preventing hydatidosis. We aimed to characterize the physicochemical properties of adenylate kinase 8 from Echinococcus granulosus (EgADK8) and identify potential B- and T-cell epitopes as vaccine candidates.
Methods: Multiple web-based servers were employed to predict immunogenic epitopes and evaluate the physicochemical, antigenic, structural, and subcellular characteristics of EgADK8.
Results: EgADK8 was predicted to be an extracellular protein with a molecular weight of 38.78 kDa. The protein showed no allergenic potential and exhibited high hydrophilicity, predicted thermal stability, and 36 potential post-translational modification sites. The secondary structure was mainly composed of alpha helices and random coils. The highest-quality three-dimensional model generated by the Robetta server achieved a confidence score of 0.79. Three independent prediction servers identified 16 linear and 9 conformational B-cell epitopes. Furthermore, two helper T lymphocyte (HTL) epitopes with predicted IFN-γ-inducing potential were identified after comprehensive screening. Additionally, five immunogenic human cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes with predicted IFN-γ-inducing potential and three murine CTL epitopes were identified.
Conclusion: These findings provide preliminary computational evidence supporting further investigation of EgADK8 as a potential component of a multiepitope vaccine against CE. The main limitation of this study was its reliance on computational analyses. Therefore, experimental validation using the whole protein and/or selected epitopes, either individually or in combination with other antigens, is required.

Background: Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a widespread disease with a serious global public health concern. Although pentavalent antimonial (MAT) drugs remain the standard treatment, their painful administration, incomplete responses, and poor patient adherence highlight the need for alternative or adjunctive therapies. Herbal and Traditional medicines are increasingly investigated as affordable and accessible options. This research aimed to assess how well a topical herbal treatment made from cotton boll extract worked and how safe.
Methods: This randomized, open-label clinical study evaluated the efficacy of a topical herbal formulation derived from cotton boll extract as an adjunct to MAT therapy. This study was conducted in 2025 at the CL Treatment Center in Kerman and included 58 patients with PCR-confirmed Leishmania tropica infection. Volunteer participants were randomly assigned to receive either intralesional MAT plus topical cotton boll extract or MAT combined with cryotherapy. Outcomes included time to lesion healing, changes in lesion size and induration.
Results: Results showed a reduction in lesion diameter and induration in both groups throughout the follow-up assessments. By week 12, complete lesion healing was detected in 95.2% of cases in the experimental group and 83.3% in the control arm; there was no meaningful difference between treatments. No significant adverse effects were observed.
Conclusion: Topical cotton boll extract can be considered as a non-invasive adjunctive therapy in the management of CL.

Background: Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a neglected tropical disease that remains endemic in several areas of Balochistan Province, including Quetta city. We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of conventional and molecular diagnostic methods for the detection and identification of CL.
Methods: Overall, 100 suspected patients were examined using conventional techniques, including microscopy, culture, and histopathology during 2024-2025, from various public hospitals of Quetta city, Pakistan. In molecular methods ITS1 gene was used to detect Leishmania on species level. Specific primers of ITS1 gene were used to amplify the targeted regions.
Results: Microscopy and PCR amplification of the ITS1 gene confirmed CL infection in 86% of cases, Culture techniques yielded promastigote growth in 16 samples, while 14 slides showed histopathological effects, indicating comparatively lower detection rates. Molecular characterization through ITS1 sequencing revealed that the isolates shared a 99% and 100% similarity with Leishmania tropica. Phylogenetic analysis further supported this relationship, confirming the predominance of this species in the study area.
Conclusion: The findings highlight the limitations of conventional diagnostic methods and focus on the implication of molecular methods, particularly PCR, for exact and early detection of CL on species-level, which is critical for effective disease management and control strategies in endemic regions like Quetta. Other demographic characteristics such as gender, age, education status, and site of lesions were also recorded.

Background: We evaluated the effects of 2′-O-methyl (2′-OMe) antisense oligonucleotides targeting the apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) gene of Plasmodium berghei using In vivo and In vivo models.
Methods: This study was conducted from 2019 to 2022 in Tehran, Iran. Antisense gapmer oligonucleotides targeting conserved regions of the AMA1 gene were designed using Vector NTI, mfold, and sfold and synthesized with 2′-OMe modifications. P. berghei ANKA cultures were treated with various ASO concentrations, and parasitemia was assessed by Giemsa-stained smears and real-time PCR. In vivo efficacy was evaluated in BALB/c mice infected intraperitoneally with P. berghei and treated subcutaneously with ASOs or control oligonucleotides; parasitemia was monitored microscopically.
Results: Both antisense oligonucleotides showed low cytotoxicity, with cell viability exceeding 89% at the tested concentrations. In vitro, both antisense oligonucleotides significantly reduced parasitemia compared with the sense control (P=0.01), with no significant difference between the two antisense sequences (P>0.05). Both oligonucleotides also reduced AMA1 expression, with the 183–202 oligonucleotide showing the greatest inhibitory effect. In vivo, the AMA1 183–202-treated group showed significantly lower parasitemia on day 2 post-infection (P=0.048), while lower parasitemia was observed in the antisense-treated groups on subsequent assessment days.
Conclusion: 2′-O-methyl antisense oligonucleotides targeting AMA1 reduced parasite growth and AMA1 expression In vivo and were associated with reduced parasitemia in P. berghei-infected mice. These preliminary findings support further investigation of AMA1-directed antisense therapy as a potential gene-specific antimalarial strategy. Larger, adequately powered studies are required to confirm efficacy and evaluate ASO delivery, stability, safety, and durability of gene silencing.

Background: Neospora caaninum, a cyst-producing parasite is identified as main causes of reproductive failure in cattle worldwide. Neosporosis results in increased rates of abortion and reduced milk production, leading to financial losses. This study aimed to identify Neospora caninum infection in aborted cattle and their fetuses, at a dairy cattle farm, focusing on the involvement of stray dogs in spreading the agent within the herd.

Methods:Twenty-one cattle showed abortion at 2, 4, 5, and 7 months of pregnancy, while stray dogs had free access to various sections of the farm. Serum samples were collected from each of the aborted dams. Seven aborted fetuses, along with two placentas, were also transported to the laboratory in frozen ice packs for testing for N. caninum. The fetal and placenta samples underwent examination through molecular and histopathological assessments.

Results: Anti-Neospora antibodies were detected in sera of 7 out of 21 cattle corresponding to a seroprevalence rate of 33.3%. Three out of seven aborted fetuses tested positive using real-time PCR. No evidence of N. caninum was found in one of the placental samples. Histopathological results were consistent with the results of serological and molecular tests.

Conclusion: The findings of the current research demonstrate that N. caninum significantly influences the occurrence of abortions in dairy cattle. Although transmission of infection from an infected dam to a fetus is the most prominent route of the disease transmission, the proximity of stray dogs to cattle herds plays a key role in increasing number of infected cases.

Background: Helminths modulate host immune responses through immunoregulatory mechanisms that may influence carcinogenesis. We investigated the prevalence and risk factors of helminthic infections among colorectal cancer (CRC) patients in Lorestan Province, western Iran.
Methods: This case-control study enrolled 87 CRC patients and 87 healthy controls from general hospitals between October 2022 and August 2024. Stool samples were examined via direct wet mount and formol-ether concentration, with agar plate culture used to detect Strongyloides stercoralis.
Results: Helminthic infections were found in 15 of 87 CRC patients (17.2%) versus 6 of 87 controls (6.9%). Trichostrongylus spp. was most common (52.4%), followed by Enterobius vermicularis (19%) and S. stercoralis (14.3%). Among CRC patients, age under 40 years was associated with higher infection odds versus those ≥60 years (OR=12.33, 95% CI: 1.38–110.2, P=0.025), while animal contact was protective (OR=0.06, 95% CI: 0.01–0.30, P=0.008). Among controls, rural residence (OR=15.25, 95% CI: 1.70–136.5, P=0.015) and animal husbandry (OR=12.61, 95% CI: 1.32–120.5, P=0.024) increased odds, while frequent fast-food consumption was protective (OR=0.16, 95% CI: 0.03–0.94, P=0.045).
Conclusion: Intestinal helminthic infections were significantly more prevalent among CRC patients than healthy controls, indicating potential clinical relevance in this population. Detection of S. stercoralis in CRC patients, along with links to environmental exposure factors, supports systematic parasitological screening in endemic regions, particularly before immunosuppressive treatment. Larger multicenter studies with molecular diagnostics are needed to clarify the association between helminthic infection and CRC.

Background: Trematode-borne diseases remain an important public health issue in Thailand, where freshwater ecosystems support a wide diversity of snail species that act as intermediate hosts. This research aimed to determine the prevalence of parasitic infections among freshwater snails in Maha Sarakham Province.
Methods: This study employed a cross-sectional survey design to ascertain the prevalence of fluke larvae in freshwater snails in Maha Sarakham Province, Thailand during April 2023. Snail samples were selected from four freshwater bodies using the counts per unit of time methodology, with five distinct sampling points established at each site. Cercaria larvae detection was conducted using the cercaria shedding method. The cercariae were examined under a stereomicroscope to classify them based on morphological characteristics.
Results: Among the 959 individual snails examined, 11 species of freshwater snails were identified, including three cercarial trematodes, Pleurolophocercous cercaria, Furcocercous cercaria, and Xiphidiocercaria, in which Lymnaea auricularia rubiginosa and Bithynia siamensis goniomphalos were infected. The overall prevalence of trematode infection was 1.04%, with 10 infected snails. The Chi Long Forest Park Reservoir exhibited the highest infection rate at 2.33%, followed by the Nang Chong Stream at 0.60% and the Ban Koeng Reservoir at 0.45%, respectively. The prevalence of trematode infections in four freshwater bodies was not significantly different (P>0.05).
Conclusion: The findings of this study provide essential baseline data for developing effective trematode control and prevention strategies in the study area. Accordingly, targeted management of intermediate host snail populations is critical for interrupting the trematode life cycle and minimizing transmission risk.

Neurocysticercosis is the most common parasitic infection of the central nervous system and may mimic neoplastic, infectious, or granulomatous lesions, particularly in non-endemic settings. Diagnosis can be challenging when characteristic radiological findings are absent. An 11-year-old boy presented with persistent headache and dizziness. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) demonstrated a 6 × 8 mm right temporal lesion with ring-like peripheral enhancement and marked surrounding vasogenic edema. The lesion appeared hypointense on T1-weighted sequences and hyperintense on T2-weighted and FLAIR images. The differential diagnosis included neoplasm, bacterial abscess, granulomatous infection, and parasitic disease. Because the lesion could not be reliably characterized noninvasively and an intracranial tumor could not be excluded, neurosurgical excision was performed. Histopathological examination demonstrated parasitic structures morphologically compatible with cysticercosis, including PAS-positive tegumental components and sucker-like structures suggestive of a cestode larva. Following the pathological diagnosis, a detailed epidemiological history revealed chronic intermittent gastrointestinal complaints and a history of antiparasitic treatment among siblings. The patient received albendazole therapy, and follow-up neuroimaging demonstrated regression of both the lesion and surrounding edema. This case highlights the importance of considering histopathologically suspected neurocysticercosis in the differential diagnosis of solitary enhancing brain lesions in children, even in regions where the disease is considered uncommon. Histopathological evaluation may be required when neuroimaging findings are non-specific and malignancy cannot be excluded.

Toxocariasis is a globally distributed zoonotic helminthic infection caused by Toxocara species. Humans are accidental hosts in whom the larvae cannot complete their life cycle; instead, they migrate through various tissues, resulting in a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations. We report the case of a 4-year-old boy from western Iran with a history of close contact with cats and dogs who presented with per orbital edema and swelling of the hands and feet. He was referred to the Diagnostic Laboratory of Helminths, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran in March 2024. Laboratory investigations revealed marked hypereosinophilia, raising suspicion of a parasitic etiology. Serological testing was positive for toxocariasis, while computed tomography (CT) revealed subtle hepatic abnormalities. The patient's clinical manifestations improved following concomitant treatment with albendazole and prednisolone, and the eosinophil count returned to the normal range during follow-up. This case highlights the importance of considering toxocariasis in children presenting with edema, marked hypereosinophilia, and a history of close contact with cats or dogs. However, although the patient was serologically positive for toxocariasis, not all clinical manifestations could be definitively attributed to the infection.

Larval forms of Echinococcus tapeworm infection (Cystic Echinococcosis - CE) are a zoonosis of major public health relevance. While prevalent in many Asian countries, it is rarely reported in Vietnam. We present a case of a 73-year-old male farmer from rural Bac Ninh Province with a history of close contact with dogs and consumption of raw vegetables. Originally diagnosed with an asymptomatic 40-mm simple hepatic cyst in 2020, he presented in 2025 with high fever and subcostal pain. Imaging (US/CT) and ELISA serology confirmed a suppurated Echinococcus sp. cyst (WHO stage CE3a). Notably, laboratory results showed a significant systemic inflammatory response with unusual lymphocytosis. The patient underwent a successful partial left hepatectomy and received adjuvant albendazole therapy. This case underscores the necessity of considering CE in the differential diagnosis of hepatic cysts in non-endemic regions like Vietnam, especially when complicated by abscess formation.

Hydatid cyst disease is a common disease in humans and animals. In livestock and agricultural areas, it is caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus. Canines serve as the definitive host, while livestock act as the intermediate host for this parasite. Humans can also be infected with the eggs of this parasite as accidental hosts, and in most cases, the liver and lungs are the primary sites of infection with this parasite and its cysts. In rare cases, other organs such as the spleen can also be infected with this cyst. Its rarity as well as the nonspecific clinical manifestations of splenic hydatid cysts lead to delays in its diagnosis and treatment. Ardabil province in northwestern Iran is one of the largest livestock-breeding areas in Iran, contributing to the spread of Echinococcosis in this region. This case report discusses a 47-year-old female farmer from Ardabil Province who, following 2 years of chronic pain in the left upper quadrant of her abdomen and splenomegaly, was diagnosed with a 13×10×10 cm isolated hydatid cyst of the spleen without involvement of other organs according to paraclinical examinations (e.g., ultrasound, CT scan, Indirect hemagglutination test). Finally, she underwent total splenectomy due to the large size of the cyst and the risk of rupture without any complications, and a histological examination confirmed the diagnosis.

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