Iranian Journal of Parasitology

Viscerotropic leishmaniasis in Iran: Current insights and future directions

2026-05-19T08:05:33+0430

Background: Viscerotropic leishmaniasis (VTL), a recently recognized variant of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), presents unique clinical challenges due to its nonspecific symptoms, primarily caused by Leishmania tropica. VTL is increasingly prevalent in cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) endemic regions, particularly in Iran. This study reviews the distribution and identification of VTL in human and animal hosts in Iran, examining host demographics, geographic location, causative Leishmania species, clinical manifestations, and genetic diversity to enhance understanding of leishmaniasis epidemiology.

Methods: A comprehensive database search identified 23 relevant studies utilizing PCR techniques for species identification.

Results: Findings indicate that VTL in Iran is predominantly caused by L. tropica, with occasional cases attributed to L. major. Interestingly, L. infantum, typically associated with VL, has also been implicated in CL across various regions, suggesting its potential role in dermotropic leishmaniasis (DL) in humans. Additionally, rare cases of L. tropica-induced VTL in dogs have been reported.

Conclusion: Addressing VTL requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates research, surveillance, and targeted interventions to improve diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Furthermore, developing rapid, cost-effective diagnostic tools to distinguish VTL from other infections and evaluating therapies for VTL caused by L. tropica and L. major are crucial steps in protecting vulnerable populations and reducing the disease burden.

Assessment of immunogenicity of multi-epitope DNA vaccine encoding CDPK3, Rop22 & MIC8 of Toxoplasma gondii adjuvanted with IL-12 against acute and chronic toxoplasmosis in BALB/c mice

2026-05-19T08:05:32+0430

Abstract

Background:

In this study, a non-allergenic, immunogenic recombinant DNA plasmid encoding CDPK3, MIC8, and ROP22 epitopes was evaluated as a DNA vaccine against Toxoplasma gondii in BALB/c mice, used in combination with IL-12 as a genetic adjuvant, to assess protection against both acute and chronic toxoplasmosis.

Methods:

BALB/c mice were immunized three times at two-week intervals with the DNA vaccine combined with IL-12. Humoral immune responses were measured by total IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a levels, while cellular responses were evaluated through interferon-γ production and lymphocyte proliferation assays. Protective efficacy was assessed using challenge models with T. gondii: the virulent RH strain for acute infection survival and the non-virulent Tehran strain for chronic infection, based on reduction of brain tissue cysts.

Results:

Vaccinated mice exhibited strong antigen-specific immunity, with elevated total IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a titers. Enhanced IFN-γ production and lymphocyte proliferation confirmed cellular activation. These responses correlated with reduced brain cyst counts after infection with the avirulent Tehran strain and prolonged survival with decreased parasite burden following virulent RH strain challenge, indicating improved protection.

Conclusion:

Co-delivery of IL-12 enhanced both the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of the CDPK3–MIC8–ROP22 multi-epitope DNA vaccine by inducing a Th1-biased response that conferred protection against acute and chronic T. gondii infection. These findings support this vaccination strategy as a promising approach for toxoplasmosis control and highlight the need for further evaluation in diverse animal models and clinical settings to confirm safety, efficacy, and long-term immunity.

Serum Eosinophil Cationic Protein in Urticaria Patients with Anti-Toxocara IgG Antibodies

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

Introduction: Toxocariasis is a parasitic disease that affects both humans and animals and is caused by migration of helminth larvae of the Toxocara genus in the host. It often presents with allergization such as urticaria, asthma-like symptoms and/or eosinophilia. Standard diagnosis is via the discovery of specific anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies which are difficult to interpret, which is why additional diagnostic criteria are necessary. We aimed to determine the levels of eosinophil cationic protein in patients with acute and chronic spontaneous urticaria with or without anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies, in order to assess the value of ECP for the diagnosis of covert cases of toxocariasis among patients with clinical allergy.

Materials & methods: We examined ECP levels in 48 patients with urticaria that were Toxocara-IgG positive, in 45 patients with urticaria with a negative result for anti-Toxocara IgG and in 50 healthy controls without allergic symptoms or anti-Toxocara antibodies.

Results: We found significantly higher median levels of ECP in urticaria patients, compared to the controls (p=0.007). We also determined that median ECP levels were significantly higher in patients with acute urticaria that were carriers of anti-Toxocara antibodies, compared to acute urticaria patients without anti-Toxocara antibodies (p=0.040). There was a significant positive correlation between ECP and anti-Toxocara IgG antibody levels (p = 0.024).

Conclusion: Our results reflect the possibility of ECP being used in the diagnosis of covert toxocariasis among patients with urticaria.

The Infestation of Supplied Mincemeat to Sarcocystis Species and Their Polymorphism Using PCR-SSCP Method

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

This study was carried on for determination of presence of Sarcocystis species in mincemeat in Tabriz (Iran) using PCR-SSCP method. Thirty samples of mixed ground meat was collected from butchers and DNA was extracted. The 18 sRNA gene fragment of S. cruzi and S. hominis species in the extracted DNA amplified by PCR using one pair specific primers , which resulted in 937 bp length fragments in parasite-positive samples. The results showed that 11 samples out of 30 (36%) were positive for S. cruzi and S. hominis species. The SSCP technique products of gene indicated 4 SSCP atterns (A, B, C and D) among study samples on PCR 18srRNA gene of S. cruzi and S. hominis. The results of this study showed that contamination with sarcocystis species in minced meat sold in Tabriz city in Iran is relatively high, which is of particular importance from a health point of view.This study was currently by SSCP teqnique on minced meat for the first time, based on the primers in the 18srRNA gene locus, there are polymorphisms in S.cruzi and S.hominis species.

The Prevalence of Intestinal Parasitic Infections in Labor Children in Karaj, Alborz Province, Iran

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

Background and Aim: Child labor (CL) is the exploitation of children through any work or activity that interferes with their ability to attend school or is harmful to their mental, physical, social or moral well-being. Unfortunately, child laborers are a shadow population for which specific information on the prevalence of intestinal parasites is not available. The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of intestinal parasites among child laborers in Karaj-Alborz.

Methods and Materials: The present study was conducted with a cross-sectional design between 2020 and 2022 in Karaj-Alborz. Two hundred and three stool samples were collected from working children in Karaj and its suburbs. The samples were examined for the presence of intestinal parasites at Alborz University of Medical Sciences using parasitological techniques (e.g., t smear, Formalin-Ether concentration, modified trichrome staining and Ziehl-Neelsen staining).

Result: The prevalence of intestinal parasites in CLs was estimated at 76% (156/203), of which 76.4% (155/156) were associated with protozoa and 1/203 (0.5%) with helminths. The highest prevalence was related to the protozoan Blastocystis hominis (89 cases (43.8%)) and among the pathogens, 11 cases (5.4%) of Giardia duodenalis were isolated.

Conclusion: The significant and alarming prevalence of intestinal parasites in CLs requires preventive, supportive, and therapeutic measures for this vulnerable population. Further attention focusing on the health status of child laborers is recommended in future studies

Impact of Livestock Shed Sanitation on Zoonotic Parasite Exposure in Stunted Children from Farming Communities

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

Background: The growing livestock population in the Panti district of Jember Regency, East Java, has raised concerns over its role as a source of zoonotic infections, particularly among children in farming communities. With a stunting prevalence of 34.9%, the highest in East Java, this region represents a critical area for investigating environmental health risks contributing to growth impairment in children.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed on 79 stunted children residing in farming communities and their livestock sheds in 2023. Shed sanitation included location, direction, building construction, waste handling, and cleanliness. Stool samples from children and cattle were examined using direct smear microscopy to detect Cryptosporidium spp. and E. histolytica. Statistical analyses included bivariate and logistic regression tests.

Results: Findings revealed that 13.5% of stunted children were infected with Cryptosporidium spp., while 11.9% tested positive for E. histolytica. Bivariate and multivariate analyses identified livestock shed location (P=0.008; P=0.041) and shed direction (P=0.018) as significant determinants for E. histolytica infection. For Cryptosporidium spp., shed orientation, particularly alignment that limits sunlight exposure, was significantly associated with infection risk (OR=14.27; 95% CI:1.39,149.21; P=0.02).

Conclusion: This study emphasizes that poor shed sanitation, especially inadequate sunlight exposure and proximity to homes, increases the risk of zoonotic protozoa transmission. Poorly oriented sheds hinder drying, supporting parasite survival. Children in such environments face higher infection and stunting risks. Environmental Enteric Dysfunction from pathogen exposure impairs absorption and growth. Improving shed design and hygiene education is essential to protect child health.

Frequency and Subtypes of Blastocystis in Patients with Diarrhea in Van, Türkiye

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

Background: This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of Blastocystis in patients with diarrhea in the Van region of Türkiye and identify the predominant Blastocystis subtypes in these individuals.

Methods: A total of 200 volunteers, including 100 diarrheal patients (patient group) and 100 healthy individuals (control group), were enrolled in the study. Samples were evaluated microscopically (native-Lugol) and via polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Sequence analysis was performed on PCR amplicons of the positive samples to identify the subtypes.

Results: Blastocystis spp. was detected in 20% (20/100) of the patient group and 16% (16/100) of the control group (p = 0.461). The prevalence of Blastocystis spp. was higher in women in the patient group (21.6%) and in men in the control group (20.7%). The highest positivity rates were observed in individuals aged 11–18 years, with 40% in the patient group and 21.4% in the control group. However, no statistically significant differences were found between the patient and control groups regarding age and sex. A significant difference in Blastocystis spp. positivity was observed between the 0–18 (23%) and 19+ (10.3%) age groups (p = 0.013). There was no statistically significant relationship between gastrointestinal symptoms, such as abdominal pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting, and Blastocystis spp. positivity. Analysis of the diarrheal patients revealed the presence of subtype 1 (ST1) (71.4%) and ST2 (28.6%) genotypes.

Conclusion: No statistically significant relationship was found between Blastocystis spp. positivity and gastrointestinal symptoms, despite the pathogenicity and pathogen-subtype relationship of Blastocystis spp. remaining controversial. Among the subtypes typically associated with symptoms in previous studies, ST1 was dominant in the diarrheal patients herein. Considering these findings, the dominance of ST1 in diarrheal patients supports the subtype-pathogenicity relationship; however, further studies involving a large number of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals are needed to clarify this issue.

Epidemiological and evaluative study of the prevalence of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Najaf Governorate, Iraq

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

Epidemiological and evaluative study of the prevalence of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Najaf Governorate, Iraq. This study included cutaneous leishmaniasis in Najaf Governorate, Iraq. Approximately 275 samples were collected from patients suspected of having cutaneous leishmaniasis; 157 of these tested positive, confirming the disease. These included 103 males and 54 females, ranging in age from 3 to 48 years. From the period of March 2023 to May 2025.

It was found that males represented a significantly higher rate of total infections (65.6%) compared to females (34.4%). The most affected age group was 5 to 10 years, followed by individuals aged 5 to 15 years, who also had a high rate of infections.

Residence area played a significant role in the prevalence of infection, with rural areas accounting for 71.34% of cases, while urban areas accounted for 28.66%. While the distribution of incidence by month of the year was 11.5%, February (14%), March (12.1%), and November (12.7%), accounting for more than half of the cases (approximately 50.3% of the total), these results indicate that warmer and/or wetter months are more likely to see instances than winter and spring.

On the one hand, wet lesions are the most common type of cutaneous leishmaniasis among the examined cases, representing 79.62% of the total lesions, compared to dry lesions, which accounted for 20.38%. While the distribution of lesions by body location, the face was the most affected area by cutaneous leishmaniasis in this study, representing 38.22% of the total lesions, compared to the lower extremities, upper extremities, and trunk.

From a pharmacological perspective, in addition to paromomycin, liposomal amphotericin B is highly effective and achieves very high cure rates to date. It is particularly effective in cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis that are resistant to many other treatments, such as complex leishmaniasis. Lipid amphotericin B is also well tolerated by patients and has less nephrotoxicity.

This article highlights the vital and growing role of paromomycin in combating leishmaniasis globally, emphasizing the need for continued scientific research to develop improved formulations and explore combination therapies that aim to overcome the challenges of resistance and enhance therapeutic outcomes.

Platelet Indices and Hemoglobin, Albumin, Lymphocyte, and Platelet (HALP) score Alterations in Sheep with Molecularly Confirmed Theileria spp. Infec-tion

2026-05-19T08:05:35+0430

Background: Theileria are apicomplexan parasites that infect both domestic and wild animals. Methods: This study represents the first investigation into platelet indices (PI) and Hemoglobin (Hb), Albumin, Lymphocyte, and Platelet (HALP score) in sheep infected with Theileria. Blood samples were collected from 100 sheep. Microscopy and PCR were used to diagnose Theileria infection, and nested PCR was used for species identification. Hematocrit (Hct), Hb, RBC, lymphocyte counts, platelet counts (PLT), plateletcrit (PCT), mean platelet volume (MPV), platelet distribution width (PDW), and serum albumin were measured. The HALP score was calculated by multiplying hemoglobin in albumin by lymphocyte count and dividing by PLT. Results: Microscopic analysis revealed 21 out of 100 samples were Theileria-infected, while PCR identified 27 species. Results showed T. ovis in 52%, T. lestoquardi in 26%, T. annulata in 11%, and a co-infection of T. lestoquardi and T. ovis in 11% of the samples. A significant difference was observed in the PLT and PCT in sheep infected with T. lestoquardi compared to other species of Theileria. A significant difference was found in the PDW in sheep infected with T. ovis and T. lestoquardi than in those infected with T. annulata. Statistical differences in the HALP score were noted for T. lestoquardi (P = 0.03), T. annulata (P = 0.01), and co-infections of T. ovis and T. lestoquardi (P = 0.05) versus T. ovis.

Conclusion: These findings suggest that PI and HALP scores can improve diagnostic processes, and future studies should use them alongside other methods for diagnosing Theileria species.

Identification of Leishmania major and Other Causative Species in Syrian Patients Infected with Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

2026-05-19T08:05:35+0430

Leishmaniasis is divided into three main clinical forms: Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL), Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL) and Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis (MCL). In Hatay, the causative agents of CL are generally Leishmania (L.) infantum, L.tropica and less frequently L. major. The mass migration wave in Syria in 2011 first started in Hatay. In this study, we aimed to determine the responsible causative species, especially L. major, in Syrian patients diagnosed as CL positive living in households and tent cities in Hatay after the migration.

In this study, smear preparations of 250 Syrian patients diagnosed with CL in Hatay Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Medicine Parasitology Laboratory since 2011 were retrospectively analyzed. DNA was isolated from smear preparations and molecular typing was performed by Real Time-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) using primers and probes specific to the ITS1 gene region. As a result of molecular analysis, 182 (72.8%) of 250 Syrian patients were infected with L.tropica, 59 (23.6%) with L.infantum/donovani and 9 (3.6%) with L.major.

In Syria, the causative species are L.tropica and L.major. The detection of cases of CL caused by L.infantum in the study suggests the possibility that they were infected by sand flies, the vector of L.infantum in our region, during their stay in tent cities in Hatay. Patients’ uncertainty about lesion onset and infection site supports possible exposure in Hatay. In line with these findings, treating patients in endemic areas with Leishmania species-specific treatment and maintaining effective notification and control activities will play an important role in preventing the spread of CL.

Microscopic and molecular identification of Trypanosoma lewisi among Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus from the district Kasur, Punjab, Pakistan

2026-05-19T08:05:35+0430

Background:

This study investigated the prevalence of T. lewisi in Black rats (R. rattus) and Brown rats (R. norvegicus) using both microscopic and molecular detection methods, along with the analysis of associated risk factors.

Methods:

A total of 178 rodents were trapped in Kasur district, with epidemiological data and geographical coordinates recorded. Rodents were identified, euthanized and blood samples were collected. T. lewisi was confirmed through microscopy, PCR, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. In the statistical analysis, descriptive statistics, Chi-square and Binary logistic regression were performed using SPSS Software. A GIS map was generated using ArcGIS 10.5.1 to illustrate geographical distribution.

Results:

The 178 blood samples. PCR confirmed to be either microscopically positive or negative samples. Overall prevalence of T. lewisi was 10(5.62%). At the species level, T. lewisi prevalence was higher in Rattus rattus (7.59%) compared to R. norvegicus (4.04%). Gender and the presence of ectoparasites were identified as potential risk factors.

Conclusion:

These findings confirm the presence of T. lewisi in black and brown rats and serve as a baseline for further surveillance and control strategies.

Toxoplasma gondii microneme protein 3 (TgMIC3): Computational probing for improved vaccine design

2026-05-19T08:05:35+0430

Background: Microneme protein 3 (MIC3) is a robust adhesion molecule in Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) that is expressed in all infection stages. This study aimed to predict different useful features of the T. gondii-MIC3 protein to confirm its suitability for inclusion in vaccine formulations.

Methods: Several bioinformatics online servers and tools were recruited to predict physicochemical characteristics, allergenicity, antigenicity, solubility, post-translational modification (PTMs) regions, subcellular localization, transmembrane domains, signal peptides, tertiary and secondary structures, potential T- and B-lymphocyte epitopes, and virtual simulation of immune responses in TgMIC3.

Results: Based on the analysis, 75 post-translational modification sites were recognized in TgMIC3. The GOR IV, SOPMA, and NetSurfP-3.0 online servers revealed that the secondary structure of the MIC3 protein frequently consists of random coils and extended strands. Additionally, several potential T- and B-lymphocyte epitopes were observed on TgMIC3. The structure assessment tool revealed that 82.91% and 98.60% of the amino acid residues were incorporated in the favored areas in the initial and refined models, respectively. The findings of the allergenicity and antigenicity assessments indicated that the MIC3 antigen seemed to be a non-allergen with an immunogenic nature. In silico immune simulation by the C-ImmSim web-based server confirmed that TgMIC3 is capable of provoking both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses after three injections.

Conclusion: This research project provides baseline data for subsequent studies on the role of the TgMIC3 protein in the development of vaccine candidates for acute and latent toxoplasmosis.

Molecular prevalence and risk factor assessment of Theileria spp. in small ruminants of Sistan, southeast of Iran

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

Background:

Theileriosis is a tropical and sub-tropical disease that causes economic losses in livestock. Theileriosis in small ruminants manifests through a range of clinical signs, including fever, mucoid nasal secretions, anemia, jaundice, lacrimation, enlarged superficial lymph nodes, anorexia, and accelerated weight reduction. in this study, the prevalence of Theileria spp. was determined in asymptomatic small ruminants of the Sistan region located in the southeast of Iran.

Methods:

the collected samples of apparently healthy sheep (n:48) and goats (n:52) were tested by polymerase chain reaction for Theileriosis detection. Two positive PCR products sequenced and assembled sequences deposited in GenBank with PQ227215 and PQ227216 accession numbers. phylogenetic analysis conducted based on partial 18S rRNA gene amplification.

Results:

the prevalence of Theileria spp. in asymptomatic small ruminants estimated at 32% in the Sistan region in this study. risk factors were also investigated, which revealed a significant relationship between the disease outbreak and tick infestation of goats.

Conclusion:

Based on the findings from this research and previous reports of the disease in the region, Theileriosis appears to be endemic among small ruminants in Sistan. Expanding research efforts in the area and investigating potential risk factors to detect various circulating species of Theileria could aid in managing this disease within the region. Conducting larger-scale studies would be beneficial for disease control efforts.

Case Report: A therapeutic side effect on hydatid cyst after lung cancer treatment

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

Purpose: Cystic echinococcus (CE) is an important health problem affecting societies living especially in rural areas.

Case Presentation: Our patient is a 64-year-old male who received PAIR treatment and albendazole treatment due to CE. The patient was first operated on for lung cancer. After treatment, the patient continues to live asymptomatically in the 36-month follow-up.

Conclusion: In this case, we observed and followed up that the paxlitaxel and carboplatin treatments received by our patient caused regression in the CE lesions. We think that the effectiveness of this situation should be evaluated first with experimental studies.

Comment on “Epidemiological Study of Toxocara Eggs in the Soil of Public Parks in Iran with an Emphasis on Climatic and Seasonal Diversity”

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

Dear Editor-in-Chief,

I was interested in reading the paper titled “Epidemiological Study of Toxocara Eggs in the Soil of Public Parks in Iran with an Emphasis on Climatic and Seasonal Diversity” by Shahbakhsh et al. that was recently publishd in the Iranian Journal of Parasitology (1). This paper is important with regard to One Health concepts, as it tackles an issue that considers the relationship between human, animal, and environmental health

One of the strengths of this research is that it is nation-wide and encompasses the country's major climate zones, including mountain, humid, and warm-dry zones, in all four seasons. This is an improvement since previous research used to be locality-based, which means that this study is more balanced in understanding the topic. Having a large sample size of 1,445 soil samples is another strength of this research. Additionally, the study's emphasis on public parks where children often play is relevant.

A combination of sucrose flotation and direct smear microscopy is valid on a large scale for environmental samples, as it suits the standards of parasitological analysis. This organized presentation of information is helpful for understanding geographic distribution as well as seasonal variations. It is valid biologically for the data plotted with humidity and moderate temperatures, as the data corresponds with the survival pattern of Toxocara eggs.

Despite the mentioned strengths, some limitations must also be noted. Firstly, by using only morphological identification through light microscopic analysis, it is not possible to distinguish between species of Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. This could pose a problem in identifying an accurate result since the eggs of various species of ascarid appear very similar. It would be beneficial to utilize molecular techniques, such as PCR analysis.

Second, despite the recognition of other climatic differences or seasonal variations, the absence of a definitive association in the generalized linear model suggests that other factors could also be involved.

Variables that were not taken into account, such as the type of soil, stray or pet animals, cleanliness of the park, or human or pet traffic, could be responsible as confounding variables.

One area that could use more research is the lack of testing for egg viability or infectivity. It is important to know egg viability since it is not necessarily true that egg presence is actually showing levels of transmission. It is more a question of embryo viability in determining public health significance.

Adding human seroprevalence rates or animal infection rates with geographic overlap would help immensely in the One Health analysis.

Therefore, in conclusion, this study contributes to the understanding of environmental parasitology and zoonotic diseases. It indicates the extent of the contamination of the soil in various climate zones, pointing to the need for an integrated approach to monitoring, molecular analysis, and prevention using One Health. I believe this study inspires more research in this area.

Response to “Comment on Epidemiological Study of Toxocara Eggs in the Soil of Public Parks in Iran with an Emphasis on Climatic and Seasonal Diversity”

2026-05-19T08:05:34+0430

No abstract.